Outline and illustrate two ways in which an action may be both self-interested and altruistic Essay Example for Free

Outline and illustrate two ways in which an action may be both self-interested and altruistic Essay Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping others. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping others. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping ot hers. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self  interest as you get positive outcomes by helping others. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping others. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping others. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping ot hers. Another way in which and action can be both altruistic and self interested is aided by the concept that altruism may lead others to think more highly of you, which is in beneficial for you and makes you feel better about yourself, so is therefore also in your self interest. An example of this is giving to charity. This may give you positive feelings as you enjoy helping others and seeing that your own actions can benefit people other than yourself. Therefore you’re being altruistic and still acting in your self interest. This then illustrates that being altruistic coincides with your self interest as you get positive outcomes by helping others.

Gender roles Essay Example for Free

Gender roles Essay Well, the topic of gender roles is a ripe one. While there is no specific outline providing benchmarks to use in classifying a person’s gender, a number of factors come into play in helping define one’s gender. One of the factors is cultural prescription as provided for by a person’s social group. A man is a man or a woman a woman depending on how the social group they belong to label or socializes them. But one should remember here that genitalia alone do not determine a person’s gender. While one’s sex is determined by one’s biology, both biology and culture (nature and nurture) determine their gender. There are different roles for different genders. Gender is more of culturally than biologically determined. In fact, a person could be born with male genitalia but be of female gender or vice versa. Differences exist between the male and female genders for instance; men are braver than women and women more emotional than men. Women like being protected while men like to protect. Also, men want to pursue a woman for relationship while women want to be pursued. The differences between the genders emanate from differences in sexes culture, religion among others. Some of the similarities include: both are jealous, self-centered and want to mend the other to live up to their own standards. Again, both genders converge in their need for recognition and love. These among other differences and similarities together with other factors such as legal have succeeded in being constant obstacles on the road to equality. Most social groups, our parents and the media have socialized us to believe that the male gender is superior to the female gender. One can ask, does sex determine one’s abilities? Pursuing such a question may elicit an endless debate but a sex-based approach in determining gender roles is bias and oppressive to women and perpetuates inequalities and patriarchy. No wonder women have to fight for equality. Kyra Sedgwick says that, â€Å"†¦we are still not really supposed to want it as much as guy does. † But I think women should be able to make their own choices. I would want to socialize my children in a manner that they will see both genders as equal and worth as much respect despite the differences. I will also want to allow them freedom to choose what they want to be in life. I will not deny them opportunities on the basis of their gender. I will also encourage them to follow their passion provided they are within the range of acceptable careers and I will endeavor to support them. A number of questions puzzle me. They include; In agitating for equality, do women become more women or less? Is a woman more woman because she enjoys same rights as a man? Is it possible to invent a universally acceptable modality of determining gender roles so as to eschew the controversy? What provisions do our societies make for those individuals who do not qualify as average male/female? These questions leave me lost in the labyrinths. The first and second questions demand that women be careful when agitating for equality lest they lose their identity. Anyway what is so serious about losing one’s identity? If forgoing one’s identity will make one have a happier life then isn’t it better to forgo it. What should be pursued, identity or happiness? Addressing the third question will save us unnecessary debates while the fourth question rises out of my worry that there are some persons that are left out in the classification of genders and this could be unfair- a more inclusive definition needs to be adopted for a fair discussion. In doing away with the dual classification such terms as feminism and others that are so ‘poisoned’ will be avoided and may be a less controversial nomenclature adopted. Andrea Wong is a brave woman. From her early age she tried her leg in leadership, a field that was erroneously perceived as a reserve for men. Also unlike most women, Andrea Wong knows how, after falling, to get up, dust herself off and keep going. Unlike Wong, most women get resigned after their first failure. If women were like her, they would also be leaders like she is today and would be doing great exploits. Rachel Roy is another woman who impresses me. She goes for what she wants and she wants nothing but the best, â€Å" If I couldn’t work at Contempo, I didn’t want to work anywhere. † This shows a resolve that most women lack. She knows what she wants that is to be a designer, â€Å"her passion started in childhood and she has never wavered†. She is final in her decision. These two women not only set good example for me but also are good role models for women. From the pieces, it is clearly depicted that success for women is dependent on their attitude and not their gender. If women changed their attitude then they would favorably compete against men and it would be easier for them and tougher for men. Works cited Newsweek, October 15, 2007.

Public Health Past And Present Health And Social Care Essay

Public Health Past And Present Health And Social Care Essay Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 2006). The concept of health is the main theme and focus of public health. The concept of Public health was defined by the American public health leader, Charles-Edward A. Winslow, in 1920 as, the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life, and promoting physical health and efficiency through organized community efforts for the sanitation of the environment, the control of community infections, the education of the individual in principles of personal hygiene, the organization of medical and nursing service for the early diagnosis and preventive treatment of disease, and the development of the social machinery which will ensure to every individual in the community a standard of living adequate for the maintenance of health (Winslow, 1926) and also adopted as the definition by The Acheson Committee on Public Health in England, which reported in 198 8, at their first meeting which is cited in the Health Second Report of the House of Common (2001). What does this definition tell us about the meaning of public health? It means it is the organised efforts of society, implying some collective responsibility for health and prevention (Beaglehole et al, 2004) Public health is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. It generally includes surveillance and control of infectious disease and promotion of healthy behaviours among members of the community in contrast to medicine which is focus on the overall health of the individual. Public health deals with the population while medicine deals with the individual. The population can be as small as of people who lives in one community or as large as all the people of several continents in the case of a pandemic. As public health become popular to this modern time tensions sometimes arise between medicine and public health. Each discipline has its distinct priorities. Medicine aims at cures for individual diseases and primarily dealing with individuals while public health emphasizes the prevention of disease of the population and health promotion. The Health Second Report of the House of Commons (House of Commons, 2001) mentioned in the paper that Public health, according to the Proprietary Association of Great Britain, is not a term understood by the majority of the public and one of the difficulties with the term public health is that it means different things to different people. In addition according to the report that Public Health can span everything from a medical specialty to a specialty which is an awful lot broader than medicine and to almost a philosophy and Public health can be variously defined so as to cover trends of disease in a population, the provision of preventive and health improving care, or a range of health-impacting factors including or excluding the NHS. According to Brieger (1999) and Kumar (2007) the history of public health has been a flourishing field in the last three decades. Yet despite a spate of excellent monographs about various epidemic diseases and many good collections about health and disease in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, as well as Europe and North America, the most recent textbook on the history of public health is four decade old. George Rosens venerable, A History of Public Health, was first published in 1958. In many ways, public health is largely a modern concept, although it has roots in antiquity and public health impact and influence has waxed and waned over the past 150 years (House of Commons, 2001). Tosh (1984) cited by Womack and Scally (2004) in his book The Pursuit of history wrote, To know about the past is to know that things have not always been as they are now, and by implication that they need not remain the same in the future and according to Carr (1987) cited by Womack and Scally (2004), history offers a dual function, to enable men and women to understand society of the past and to increase the mastery over the society of the present. The importance of the history, knowledge and understanding of the past public health and how it evolved, its success and failures, its highs and lows enable us to increase our understanding of the present. In this paper public health history is revisited to see how past shaped the public health today. Past and Present Throughout the human history, community attempts to prevent and limit the spread of diseases which are the main early historical ideas of public health. Evidence of the existence of the idea of public health can be found in the earliest evidence of communal living and existence of diseases similar to what we have today. Evidences of activities connected with community health were well documented by Rosen et al (1993) in the book A History of Public Health these community health activities have been found in the very earliest civilizations dated as early as four thousand years ago in India, where evidence showed that these early Indian cities where consciously planned in which the bathrooms and drains are common in excavated buildings, the streets were broad, paved and drained by covered sewers. In Middle Kingdom (2100-1700 BC) archaeologist discovered the ruin city of Kahun in Egypt and there is an evidence that care was taken to drain off water by means of masonry gutter in the cent re of the street. During the pre-Christian era, about two thousand years ago, the problem of procuring drinking water supply for larger communities had already been solved. In the book it was mentioned about the impressive engineering works of the Incas. They established well-drained cities that were adequately supplied with water, thus providing a good basis for the health of the community. In Greece, for example, the Cretan-Mycenean culture had large conduits, and in the Palaces, such as that of Konosos on Crete, which dates from the second pre-Christian millennium, there were not only magnificent bathing facilities but also water flushing arrangements for the toilets (Rosen et al, 1993). Kumar (2007) mentioned that Romans believe that ill health could be associated with, amongst other things, bad air, bad water, swamps, sewage, debris and lack of personal cleanliness. In some places, Rome included, it is impossible to avoid all of these unless something is physically done to alte r the environment. The Romans resolved these problems by the provision of clean water through aqueducts, removing the bulk of sewage through the building of sewers and development of a system of public toilets throughout their towns and citys and personal hygiene was encouraged through the building of large public baths. These historical evidences of public health community activities are the source of early information and strategies on the importance of housing and sanitation in public health. Rosen et al, (1993) discussed the concept of cleanliness and it was very evidence during early days. Cleanliness and personal hygiene are to be found among present-days primitive and very unquestionably practiced by pre-historic and early historic men. Primitive people dispose generally their excretions in sanitary way, although their reasons are quite different to the reasons of todays generation. During early days these practices are connected to religious practices. People kept clean to be pure and clean in the eyes of the gods and not for hygienic reason. An interesting example cited by Rosen et al (1993) was the connection between the cleanliness and religion in the Inca feast, Citua. Every year, in September, at the beginning of rainy season which is associated with diseases, the people led by the Inca carried out health ceremony. In addition to prayer all homes were thoroughly cleaned. Religious traditions against eating pork among Hebrews and Muslims reflect the special hazar ds of eating those foods when inadequately preserved or prepared. As often happens in public health, even without an understanding of the underlying etiology, effective preventive measures can be taken. Successes in prevention reinforce the concept that disease can be prevented through human action other than prayers and sacrifices to the gods, which in turn encourages additional attempts at prevention. Other ancient practices which created a great impact in health of our modern time such as those that can be found among the Indian cultures with a well-developed system of health-related practices called Ayurveda (the science of living) that extensively used herbs and yoga (body and breathing exercises) based on three broad parameters, loosely translated as air (vata), bile (pita) and phelgm (kapha). While the exact date of the origins of these practices are unknown, it is variously estimated to have been in existence since before 1000 B.C. It is generally believed that invasive medicines were discouraged within Ayurveda, though some translations of older works suggest that occasional operations were performed on exceptional cases. Ancient Indian cultures also cultivated systems of healing such as Pranic healing (Mishra, 2003). The Ancient Greek would not have been too unfamiliar with some of the health and fitness regimes that are used by people today. The word Regimen was used by t he Greeks to describe peoples lifestyles: from which can be derived the word regimented (as in organised). The Greek philosophy of Regimen covered what people ate, drank, the types and amount of exercise that they took and how much sleep they had. These ideas were very thorough: it demonstrates that the Greeks knew that lifestyle could affect the quality of life, as evidenced by their development and championing of the Olympics. Such is the quality of the remaining evidence that we can even see that doctors advice differed for those who were rich: and could therefore afford to spend time and money on relaxing, and those who worked or were poorer: and therefore couldnt maintain as healthy a lifestyle as possible many of which are still visible in places today (Kumar, 2007). In China, although it is not traditionally known as public health, but health practices were visible already during the early days. The earliest known work on Chinese herbs appeared as early as 100 B.C.E., the acu puncture and moxibution, both of which have been practiced as therapeutic techniques in China for more than 2,000 years, the Qi Gong, as an art of healing and health preservation, dates back to the Tang Yao period, some twenty centuries B.C.E. which is about dancing and body movements, and various ways of breathing, exhalation, and exclamation were recognized as ways to read-just some functions of the human body and treat diseases (Koenig et al, 2001). Public health problems are caused majority by diseases which are transmitted from one person to another. One example is tuberculosis. Tuberculosis was a very common problem all over the world until a good understanding of the disease helped scientists and doctors invent treatments. Less than 100 years ago, many famous people died from the disease, including artists, writers, philosophers, scientists, politicians and even some kings and queens. The history of diseases can be traced as early as the human existence. Paleopathology, the study of ancient diseases using fossils and other artifacts, reveals that early Homo sapiens, who were hunter-gatherers, suffered from essentially the same diseases that afflict people today for example, schistosomiasis, prevalent in Egypt today, has been found in Kidneys 3000 years old (Kloss and David, 2002) and skeletal remains show prehistoric humans (7000 BC) had TB (Hershkovitz et al, 2008), and tubercular decay has been found in the spines of mummi es from 3000-2400 BC (Zink et al, 2003). According to Rosen et al, (1993) the first clear accounts of acute communicable diseases occur in the literature of classical Greece such as the writings of Thucydides and Hippocrates. In Hippocratic collection several known diseases of today were already mentioned such as malarial fevers, colds, pneumonia, inflammation of the eyes, suggestive statements of the presence of cases of diphtheria (although not known yet as diphtheria) and other unknown diseases in those time. In the period of the Western European history from the fall of the West Roman Empire in the 5th to the 15th century is known as the middle ages (Dark ages) religion takes a firm hold on science (Koenig et al, 2001). During this time, the Western Europe experienced a period of social and political disintegration. Large cities disappeared, replaced by small villages surrounding the castles of feudal chiefs. The only unifying force was Christianity, and it was in the monasteries that the learning and culture of the Greco-Roman world was preserved. Furthermore, in many of these institutions, piped water supplies, sanitary sewers, privies, bathing facilities, and heating and ventilation were provided. In addition, some monasteries constructed hospices to shelter travellers and sick persons, though the medical care provided in them was primitive at best. In Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, however, feudalism did not exist, and medicine advanced and became centred in major secular hospitals e stablished in Byzantium, Baghdad, and Cairo (Conrad, 2006). The two most popular epidemics during the Middle Ages were Black Death and leprosy. Due to the specific environmental circumstances of medieval Europe and the religion of medieval people, these two epidemics had great social repercussions In early 1347, a fearful epidemic of bubonic plague broke out in Constantinople. From then on, this great plague would reach Europe and kill approximately from one-fourth to nine-tenths of the human population in the affected areas. Black Death or Plague from a modern medical point of view, it is a pneumonic type of an infection, highly contagious, which could be transmitted via inhalation, ingestion, or even slight abrasion of skin. Usually, lung lesions occur and death may occur from heart failure. The walls of blood vessels are attacked frequently causing haemorrhages and acute blood poisoning. It is fatal in almost all cases (Byrne, 2004). While leprosy spread in every civilized country in Europe during the Middle Ages. The Order of Lazarus was founded, and Lazarettoes built in a great numbers: the work and the purpose of the Order is to segregate and govern the afflicted and dangerous part of humanity. The disease was controlled through segregation and isolation of those who were afflicted of the disease (Rawcliffe, 2006), which is a very important concept of quarantine and isolation for the modern public health. Successes in prevention reinforce the concept that disease can be prevented through human action other than prayers and sacrifices to the gods, which in turn encourages additional attempts at prevention. By the 1600s, the practices of isolation and quarantine had begun to be employed to prevent the spread of certain diseases; by the 1800s these practices had become common in the American colonies. Methods of smallpox inoculation also began to be used and apparently mitigated some epidemics, even before Edward Jenners introduction of a safe vaccine based on cowpox virus (Schoenbach, 2000). In the early modern world, after about 1500, the West grew in wealth and world dominance, but it did not grow healthier. Infections that took a terrible toll on previously isolated societies, so-called virgin populations, became domesticated as world travel increased and urbanization progressed. Diseases that had been epidemic became endemic in urban centres (Brieger, 1999). During this period the development of crowded urban living, created the profoundest health problems. The contradiction between health and wealth of the nation was not lost. The promotion of fertility and personal hygiene education, the policing of sexually and socially transmitted diseases through policies of isolation and treatment and other major public health importance to the public health of modern time emerged during this period (Porter, 1994). In 1848, after studying a typhus epidemic, the German pathologist Rudolf Virchow stated that all epidemics had social causes-most typically poverty, hunger, and poor housing. Virchow believed that improving social conditions would have a positive effect on public health. This important early perspective plays a significant role in todays thinking about public health, especially when there are major health disparities among social classes within an individual society or between rich and poor countries (Open Collections Program, 2008). The period from 1750 until the mid-nineteenth century was characterized by unprecedented industrial, social, and political developments, and the resulting societal impacts were immense, culminating in the Industrial Revolution (Porter, 1994). In the modern public-health advocates emerged in response to the slum and desperate working conditions of nineteenth-century Europe and North America. In centres like New York, London and Berlin the struggle for proper sewerage, decent housing, clean water, factory inspectors, district health officers and a regime of food inspections was born (Remington (chairman), 1988). First major written contribution in the field of public health was in Germany, Between 1779-1816, Johann Peter Frank, a leading clinician, medical educator, and hospital administrator. Franks fame rests on his massive System einer vollstà ¤ndigen medizinischen Polizey (9 vol., 1779-1827; System of a Complete Medical Policy), which covers the hygiene of all stages of a mans life. He undertook to systematize all that was known on public health and to devise detailed codes of hygiene for enactment. He was among the first to urge international regulation of health problems, and he endorsed the notion of medical police, whereby one of the duties of the state was to protect the health of its citizens (Frank, 2008). On the other hand in England 1788, Jeremy Bentham in the hope of making a political career, he settled down to discovering the principles of legislation. The great work on which he had been engaged for many years, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, was published in 1789. In this book he defined the principle of utility as that property in any object whereby it tends to produce pleasure, good or happiness, or to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness to the party whose interest is considered. Mankind, he said, was governed by two sovereign motives, pain and pleasure; and the principle of utility recognized this state of affairs. The object of all legislation must be the greatest happiness of the greatest number. He deduced from the principle of utility that, since all punishment involves pain and is therefore evil, it ought only to be used so far as it promises to exclude some greater evil.(Bentham, 2008). Through Benthams work Chadwick was influenced to produce his famous work General Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (1842). As secretary of the royal commission on reform of the poor laws (1834-46), Chadwick was largely responsible for devising the system under whi ch the country was divided into groups of parishes administered by elected boards of guardians, each board with its own medical officer. Later, as commissioner of the Board of Health (1848-54), he conducted a campaign that culminated in passage of the Public Health Act of 1848. This legislation embodied his belief that public health should be administered locally so as to encourage the people to participate in their own protection (Chadwick, 2008). In1854. London was in the middle of an outbreak of cholera. At the time, Europeans did not know what caused cholera. People saw that a lot of people were getting sick and dying, and they ran away to other places hoping they would not get sick too. The discovery owing largely to the work of a mid-nineteenth-century English doctor named John Snow. He watched who was getting sick very carefully. He made a map and put a mark on the map for each person who had got sick and died (Steven, 2006). Cholera is caused by a comma-shaped bacterium-Vibrio cholerae-whose role was identified by the German physician Robert Koch in 1883. By far the most common route of infection is drinking contaminated water. And, since water comes to contain V. cholerae through the excrement of cholera victims, an outbreak of the disease is evidence that people have been drinking each others feces (Steven, 2006). The classic investigations on the transmission of cholera by John Snow in 1854 and other diseases such as typhoid fever by William Budd in 1834, and puerperal fever by Ignaz Semmelweis in 1847 led to understanding and the ability to reduce the spread of major infections and other studies and researches and give rise to the birth of epidemiology (Schoenbach, 2000) which is a very important field in the modern public health. Two major points can be drawn from historical perspective with the 19th century the dramatic advances in the effectiveness of public health  ­ the great sanitary awakening and the advent of bacteriology and the germ theory (Schoenbach, 2000). The rapid advances in the scientific knowledge about causes and prevention of numerous diseases brought tremendous changes in public health. Many major contagious diseases were brought under control through science applied in public health. The identification of bacteria and the development of interventions such as immunization and water purification techniques provided a means of controlling and preventing the spread of diseases (Remington (chairman), 1988).The advance in understanding of infectious disease that constituted the arrival of the bacteriologic era at the end of the century dramatically increased the effectiveness of public health action. In one dramatic example, mosquito control brought the number of yellow fever deaths in Havana from 305 to 6 in a single. Cholera, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, the great scourges of humanity, rapidly came under control in the industrialized countries (Schoenbach, 2000). However, with the decline in severity of infectious disease came a rise in mental illnesses, drug addictions, chronic diseases, cancer, and injuries and health damage associated with industrial labour and new emergence of infectious diseases associated with lifestyle such as HIV, Sexually Transmitted Diseases and re-emergence of diseases once thought defeated or least controlled like TB and malaria are back and have developed resistance to the drugs. Hospitals are today besieged by new forms of infection such as MRSA and C. dificiles that are resistant to most known antibiotics because of abuse and misuse of antibiotics. The changing demographic profile of the country such as increasing over 65 years population, the financial, health and care cost and provisions, ethnicity, diversity, the natural environment including source of water, types of food, clean air, different philosophies about animal use in research, technological advances such as bio-engineering, genetic engineering and human embryonic technology adds to the challenges of the modern public health. Over the course of history such as the Sanitary movement of the nineteenth century and the development of bacteriology substantially lowered death rates from enteric diseases and other serious health problems still existed (House of Commons). Despite remarkable success in lowering deaths from typhoid, diphtheria, and other contagious diseases, considerable disability continuous to exist in the population. It also became clear that diseases, even for treatment was available, still predominantly affected urban poor (Remington (chairman), 1988). In the Twentieth Century, health, as measured by life expectancy, has improved for the population of Britain to a remarkable extent. Life expectancy in England and Wales has increased from 52 years for men and 55 years for women in 1910, to 74 years and 79 years respectively in 1994. Over the same period infant mortality has fallen from around 105 per thousand to six per thousand. Over the past twenty years, overall mortality rates have continue d to decrease. However, health indicators such as mortality and morbidity rates have not improved at the same rates for everyone, with the result that health gap between the healthiest groups and the least healthy groups has now widened and is widening further (House of Commons, 2001). Health inequalities between develop countries and developing countries still exist at this modern time. Concern about health inequalities and other distributional aspects (disparity) of health status and service use has enjoyed varying degrees of attention over the years. During the 1970s and early 1980s, distributional concerns (i.e. a concern for about the health status of different socio-economic groups within society as distinct from the overall societal average) were dominant in thought about international health. These concerns then receded for about a decade, from around the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, as attention turned from equity to efficiency. Now, the pendulum has begun to swing back, and distributional concerns are on the rise (Gwatkin, 2002). Those who are most vulnerable to evolving health crises tend to be the poor and marginalized who already suffer from numerous inequities and lack of opportunities. Another striking example of the disparity in emerging health issues is found in environmental health. While the industrialized world, representing 15% of the worlds population, consumes more than 60% of world energy, the developing world shoulders the greater health burden from modern environmental hazards. According to the World Health Organization, more than 40% of the total disease burden (in disability adjusted life years lost DALYs) due to urban air pollution occurs in developing countries. Children are especially vulnerable to chemical, physical and biological hazards in their environments because they are in a very active growth stage and the ability of their bodies to detoxify is not fully developed (Global Health Council, 2008). Despite progress over the last decades, health conditions in many developing countries are still unsatisfactory and, in most instances, health outcomes in these economies remain below those attained in the developed countries, with a significant share of the populations suffering from reventable and/or easily treatable diseases. To a large extent, global inequalities in health outcomes eflect the enormous socio-economic disparities that exist between rich and poor countries. Simultaneously, inequalities in health outcomes are prevalent between or among different socio-economic, ethnic, racial, cultural groups in a country: for example, between male and female, between urban and rural populations, between rich and poor groups, the old and the young, etc. (CDP Working Group on Global Public Health, 2009) The world is entering a new era in which, paradoxically, improvements in some health indicators and major reversals in other indicators are occurring simultaneously. Rapid changes in an already complex global health situation are taking place in a context in which the global public-health workforce is unprepared to confront these challenges (Beaglehole et al, 2004). Modern technologies give rise to modern public health problems such as high rates of occupational diseases and industrial injuries led to programs for industrial hygiene and occupational health. Mental health (stress and depression) was identified as a public health issue, and specific nutritional deficiencies were recognized as risk factors for a spectrum of diseases and other health nutritional related diseases such as obesity and malnutrition. The urban development patterns and global trade policies have had a direct impact on the emergence of preventable injuries and tobacco use as major public health threats. In 2000, unintentional injuries (e.g. road traffic injuries and poisoning) and intentional injuries (e.g. interpersonal violence and war) accounted for 9% of the world deaths and 12% of the global burden of disease and according to WHOs Tobacco Free Initiative, tobacco use accounted for 6% of the world deaths in 1990; however, if current use patterns persist, deaths due to tobacco use are expected to increase to 18% by the year 2020 (Global health Council, 2008). Another modern public health issue is the concept of Drug abuse is a major public health problem that impacts society on multiple levels. Directly or indirectly, every community is affected by drug abuse and addiction, as is every family. Drugs take a tremendous toll on our society at many levels (National Institute of Drug Abuse, 2008) and the problem of infectious diseases is another issue of present public health. According to the World Health Organizations 2004 World Health Report, infectious diseases accounted for about 26 percent of the 57 million deaths worldwide in 2002. Collectively, infectious diseases are the second leading cause of death globally, following cardiovascular disease, but among young people (those under the age of 50) infections are overwhelmingly the leading cause of death. In addition, infectious diseases account for nearly 30 percent of all disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), which reflect the number of healthy years lost to illness. Todays infectious diseases can be a newly emerging disease, is a disease that has never been recognized before, such as HIV/AIDS is a newly emerging disease, as is severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Nipah virus encephalitis, and variant Creutzfeld-Jakob disease while Re-emerging, or resurging, diseases are those that have been around for decades or centuries, but have come back in a different form or a different location. Examples are West Nile virus in the Western hemisphere, monkeypox in the United States, and dengue rebounding in B razil and other parts of South America and working its way into the Caribbean. Deliberately emerging diseases are those that are intentionally introduced. These are agents of bioterror, the most recent and important example of which is anthrax. Newly emerging, re-emerging, and deliberately emerging diseases are all treated much the same way from a public health and scientific standpoint (Fauci, 2006). Conclusion To tackle the major global health challenges effectively, the practice of public health will need to change. It is not sufficient to focus only on urgent health priorities, for example, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria in Africa, or the narrowly focused Millennium Development Goals. Programmes and policies are required that respond to poverty-the basic cause of much of the global burden of disease-prevent the emerging epidemics of non-communicable disease, and address global environmental change, natural, and man-made disasters, and the need for sustainable health development. The justification for action is that health is both an end in itself-a human right-as well as a prerequisite for human development (Beaglehole et al, 2004) and it is important to recognised the potential value of historical research for studying health services and for influencing health care policy. Responsibility for the lack of use of history in formulating policy lies both with policy-makers and historia ns. History can help them realize the constraints they face and help them plan accordingly, a situation well expressed by Antonio Gramsci in the 1920s: man can affect his own development and that of his surroundings only so far as he has a clear view of what the possibilities of action open to him are. To do this he has to understand the historical situation in which he finds himself: and once he does this, then he can play an active part in modifying that situation. historys contribution complements those from other disciplines. It has an additional unique role. It can help policy-makers understand the limitations they inevitably face and, in doing so, can help them maintain realistic expectations. Carefully formulated policies to shape the future are always going

Jane Eyre and Control Dramas Essays -- Jane Eyre Essays

Jane Eyre and Control Dramas  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   There are particular powers that drive lives in their respective directions.   Some are internal, but the majority are external.   The external propellers are forces caused by the environment of an individual.   Environmental influences include but are not limited to   geographical and climatic forces.   In addition, there are societal forces such as the "control drama." Control dramas have been introduced by the best selling author James Redfield as a way to evaluate situations through behavioral classifications.   Jane Eyre is an excellent example of how control dramas affect the individual.   In order to fully understand why Jane acts as she does, it is paramount to analyze the control dramas that influence her choices and decisions (Redfield 142-43). Redfield suggests, "One of the first steps we must take to evolve consciously is to clear away our past attitudes, fears, misinformation, and behavior for controlling the flow of energy" (142-43).   A control drama is a situation that involves an individual want or drive to control power.   This will to power is exhibited through actions, reactions, conversations, and all other facets of everyday life.   The foundation of control dramas begin early in life and set the tone for further life choices.   In a conversation, for example, there is often a constant drive for each participant to feel as if he or she is in control.   The way that each person gains control defines the different levels of a control drama.   There are four basic types of power control that we purport:   two which are passive and the two that are active. The most active role one can assume is the "intimidator."   The intimidator vies for attention by use of extreme behavior.... ...Jane's environment, she fell in love with Mr. Rochester.   The reason for her feelings was not because he was good looking, especially kind, rich, or socially suitable, but because she felt no pressure to perform within a control drama.   Mr. Rochester and Jane did not have to act with activity or passivity to coerce the other to sacrifice any of their own personal control.   This unfettered relationship is finally successful because of their conscious effort to remain free of these dramas. Works Cited Brontà «, Charlotte.   Jane Eyre.   Ed.   Richard J. Dunn.   2nd ed.   Norton:   New York, 1987.   (5-398). Eagleton, Terry.   "Jane Eyre's power Struggles."   Jane Eyre.   Ed.   Richard J. Dunn.   2nd ed.   Norton:   New York, 1987.   (491-96). Redfield, James, and Carol Adrienne.   The Celestine Prophesy:   An Experimental Guide.   New York:   Time Warner Co., 1995.    Jane Eyre and Control Dramas Essays -- Jane Eyre Essays Jane Eyre and Control Dramas  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   There are particular powers that drive lives in their respective directions.   Some are internal, but the majority are external.   The external propellers are forces caused by the environment of an individual.   Environmental influences include but are not limited to   geographical and climatic forces.   In addition, there are societal forces such as the "control drama." Control dramas have been introduced by the best selling author James Redfield as a way to evaluate situations through behavioral classifications.   Jane Eyre is an excellent example of how control dramas affect the individual.   In order to fully understand why Jane acts as she does, it is paramount to analyze the control dramas that influence her choices and decisions (Redfield 142-43). Redfield suggests, "One of the first steps we must take to evolve consciously is to clear away our past attitudes, fears, misinformation, and behavior for controlling the flow of energy" (142-43).   A control drama is a situation that involves an individual want or drive to control power.   This will to power is exhibited through actions, reactions, conversations, and all other facets of everyday life.   The foundation of control dramas begin early in life and set the tone for further life choices.   In a conversation, for example, there is often a constant drive for each participant to feel as if he or she is in control.   The way that each person gains control defines the different levels of a control drama.   There are four basic types of power control that we purport:   two which are passive and the two that are active. The most active role one can assume is the "intimidator."   The intimidator vies for attention by use of extreme behavior.... ...Jane's environment, she fell in love with Mr. Rochester.   The reason for her feelings was not because he was good looking, especially kind, rich, or socially suitable, but because she felt no pressure to perform within a control drama.   Mr. Rochester and Jane did not have to act with activity or passivity to coerce the other to sacrifice any of their own personal control.   This unfettered relationship is finally successful because of their conscious effort to remain free of these dramas. Works Cited Brontà «, Charlotte.   Jane Eyre.   Ed.   Richard J. Dunn.   2nd ed.   Norton:   New York, 1987.   (5-398). Eagleton, Terry.   "Jane Eyre's power Struggles."   Jane Eyre.   Ed.   Richard J. Dunn.   2nd ed.   Norton:   New York, 1987.   (491-96). Redfield, James, and Carol Adrienne.   The Celestine Prophesy:   An Experimental Guide.   New York:   Time Warner Co., 1995.   

America Needs Capital Punishment Essay -- Pro Death Penalty Essays

In this essay, I will argue for the implementation of the death penalty. I will establish a clear-cut profile for a criminal to be eligible for death row. I will put forth arguments for and against the death penalty as supported by various groups and try to defend my position. I shall also try to criticize the case against the death penalty with individual arguments. Finally, I will demonstrate that no alternative to capital punishment can be reached and try to convince you for its fairness. Despite ethical and moral concerns, the issue of capital punishment must not be dismissed without serious consideration and scrutiny.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is our judiciary system working the way it is suppose to? Many people and countries are convinced that the judiciary system of the United States is a joke. While law may be rigid and defined, there are a number of loopholes which allow criminals to be set free into the streets. One such loophole has the death penalty in its eyes. In my opinion, criminals who commit a heinous crime should be put on death row and they should be executed as soon as possible without having the slights chance to end back up in society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What type of criminals would meet the criteria for death row? Should every lawbreaker, from a thief to murderer, be sentenced to such a harsh punishment? Absolutely not. In fact, I propose that it is the very extreme felons that should face this penalty. Murderers are the only ones that should be sentenced to death. As a matter of fact, I believe, it is only mass murderers that should confront this penalty. While murder is inexcusable, there are a number of ways in which a guilty party might not have been in full control nor done so with a different intent. Crimes of passion, for example is one such case where one may be compelled to murder, drunk driving and other driving accidents that cause fatalities. Another example could be seen in cases of revenge, such as killing a rapist. Where as such murderers should be punished accordingly, they do not deserve a death penalty.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On the other hand, planed violence geared toward a group of induvilas rather than a single person must be penalized. Most murders that are seen today come on the mass scale. News reports are full of stories such as the â€Å"Oklahoma City Bomber†, who killed over one hundred people by bombs. One more recent story was the â€Å"Sniper† story, wher... ...le this system is very good for a single murder and should be implemented, it falls through in the case of multiple murders. Thus so far there are no alternatives to the death penalty.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The only reasonable excuse against the death penalty is the execution of an innocent person. None the less, while in the past Techniques such as DNA testing did not exist, frequently police agencies are more precise in their accusation as well as their methods of finding the guilty party. As a society we must grant our trust into the hands of authority. While there still can be wrong imprisonment of people for petty crimes such as robbery, these would not quality for the death row. On the other hand, those people who committed mass murder, and let me reiterate mass murderers are often not wrongfully accused. These people deserve no less for themselves than what they have done to others. Even though we are compelled to remember a famous saying â€Å"An Eye For An Eye Makes The World Go Blind† we should not forget that death penalty, as I believe, should be applied to murderers of multiple victims. In this sense let’s rephrase the saying accordingly â €Å"50 eyes for an eye make’s reasonable sense.† America Needs Capital Punishment Essay -- Pro Death Penalty Essays In this essay, I will argue for the implementation of the death penalty. I will establish a clear-cut profile for a criminal to be eligible for death row. I will put forth arguments for and against the death penalty as supported by various groups and try to defend my position. I shall also try to criticize the case against the death penalty with individual arguments. Finally, I will demonstrate that no alternative to capital punishment can be reached and try to convince you for its fairness. Despite ethical and moral concerns, the issue of capital punishment must not be dismissed without serious consideration and scrutiny.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is our judiciary system working the way it is suppose to? Many people and countries are convinced that the judiciary system of the United States is a joke. While law may be rigid and defined, there are a number of loopholes which allow criminals to be set free into the streets. One such loophole has the death penalty in its eyes. In my opinion, criminals who commit a heinous crime should be put on death row and they should be executed as soon as possible without having the slights chance to end back up in society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What type of criminals would meet the criteria for death row? Should every lawbreaker, from a thief to murderer, be sentenced to such a harsh punishment? Absolutely not. In fact, I propose that it is the very extreme felons that should face this penalty. Murderers are the only ones that should be sentenced to death. As a matter of fact, I believe, it is only mass murderers that should confront this penalty. While murder is inexcusable, there are a number of ways in which a guilty party might not have been in full control nor done so with a different intent. Crimes of passion, for example is one such case where one may be compelled to murder, drunk driving and other driving accidents that cause fatalities. Another example could be seen in cases of revenge, such as killing a rapist. Where as such murderers should be punished accordingly, they do not deserve a death penalty.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On the other hand, planed violence geared toward a group of induvilas rather than a single person must be penalized. Most murders that are seen today come on the mass scale. News reports are full of stories such as the â€Å"Oklahoma City Bomber†, who killed over one hundred people by bombs. One more recent story was the â€Å"Sniper† story, wher... ...le this system is very good for a single murder and should be implemented, it falls through in the case of multiple murders. Thus so far there are no alternatives to the death penalty.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The only reasonable excuse against the death penalty is the execution of an innocent person. None the less, while in the past Techniques such as DNA testing did not exist, frequently police agencies are more precise in their accusation as well as their methods of finding the guilty party. As a society we must grant our trust into the hands of authority. While there still can be wrong imprisonment of people for petty crimes such as robbery, these would not quality for the death row. On the other hand, those people who committed mass murder, and let me reiterate mass murderers are often not wrongfully accused. These people deserve no less for themselves than what they have done to others. Even though we are compelled to remember a famous saying â€Å"An Eye For An Eye Makes The World Go Blind† we should not forget that death penalty, as I believe, should be applied to murderers of multiple victims. In this sense let’s rephrase the saying accordingly â €Å"50 eyes for an eye make’s reasonable sense.†

Essay --

On the Rainy River by Tim O’Brien Life can sometime bring unwanted events that individuals might not be willing to face it. This was the conflict of O’Brien in the story, â€Å"On The Rainy River†. As the author and the character O’Brien describes his experiences about the draft to the Vietnam War. He face the conflict of whether he must or must not go to the war, in this moment O’Brien thinking that he is so good for war, and that he should not be lost in that way. He also show that he disagree with the consbet of the war, how killing people will benefit the country. In addition O’Brien was terrifying of the idea of leaving his family, friends, and everything that he has done in the past years. This idea and the drafted make decide to run away from his responsibility and from his society. However, the feeling of shame embarrassed and bring crowed in the eyes of his family and friends make him go to war. After being drafted, a lot of ideas and thoughts came to his mind. O’Brien thought about what will do if he goes war and how his life will be after if he srvral. For example, â€Å"I imag...

Five Management Functions in the Army

Every successful organization uses the five management functions; but not many can compare with the United States Armed Forces. I am currently serving in the U. S. Army and this organization has effectively applied the five management functions, because its existence depends on those five functions. They Army is constantly engaging in the five management functions; their operations are well led, organized, carefully planned, staffed, and constantly evaluated. I do not believe there is any organization other than the military where you would see these five functions linking so well coordinated.â€Å"Planning is a systematic process in which managers make decisions about future activities and the key goals that the organization will pursue. The necessity of careful environmental scanning has an immediate impact on planning processes† (Reilly, Minnick, and Baack, 2011, sec. 7. 2). Making plans for future activities is one of the Army’s key functions; without planning its s ubordinate commands would deteriorate and lose focus on mission objectives and the quality of work.In the Army, we use the Eight-Step Training Model; for which planning always starts out backwards by starting with the objective and working its way back to day zero. The planning is then broken down into three phases; long term, short-term and near term depending on the size of the organization or unit. I find the planning phase in the Army to be very effective because it is important for employees or soldiers to know what needs to happen in the days ahead. â€Å"The design methodology provides a means of approximating complex problems that allows for meaningful action† (Grigsby, 2011, p.  30).Proper use of planning in the Army keeps the employees motivated and goal oriented. When planning in the Army goes wrong, you have Soldiers sitting around waiting on orders, people go unaccounted for, and will eventually negatively affect the other four management functions. Leadership is one of the key elements of the Army; in fact, it is one of its core values. Without the function of leading, the military would have no effect. The Army depends on leadership to be able to effectively organize, staff, plan, and control in order to have a productive work environment.â€Å"Leading in a business context, consists of all activities undertaken to help people achieve the highest level of performance† (Reilly, Minnick, and Baack, 2011, sec. 7. 2). In the Army everyone is a leader to a certain extend because we all have the same goal. We are taught that â€Å"leadership is having the ability to influence people by providing purpose, direction, and motivation while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization†; when asked â€Å"What is leadership? † that will be the answer you will get from every Soldier (Department of the Army, 2006).The Army, like other military services, is unique for leader development for two reasons; one is because the system is made so that you either move up in rank or get out; in other words if you fail to get promoted after a certain amount time then it is time for you to get out. In civilian organizations, employees can attain a certain level and remain that level until retirement. Second reason for its uniqueness in leadership is that they do not hire leaders outside of their organization; instead, senior level positions become filled by the individuals that are able to achieve promotion within the same organization (Fallesen, 2011).â€Å"Organizing is the process of bringing people and resources together to create products and services in an efficient and effective manner† (Reilly, Minnick, and Baack, 2011, sec. 7. 2). In order for the Army to work, it requires a lot of organization; this is because there are so many different components that are required in order to make it operational and self-sufficient. Due to the size of the Army and any other military components; i t is important to departmentalize different parts of it but essentially these parts have to be able to complement each other and work together to achieve mission success.Take a deployment for example; when the Army deploys, it deploys several different units. These units have different tasks that will allow the entire organization to function as a whole; this means that if an infantry unit is due to deploy it will not deploy by itself, several different units will deploy to support the main objective. In other words, one part of the organization is tasked with the mission; the other portions of the organization will provide support such as transportation, resources, administrative support, etc.In order to make this happen, these organizations must train together in order to know how each of their functional bodies fit into each other’s mission. It is almost like pieces to a puzzle watching different parts of the Army work together; even if they have never worked together or t rained together, these organizations are able to fall in sync and make it happen. Using the management function of organization in the Army requires strong leadership and careful planning because if not properly executed the end results could be catastrophic and the loss unmentionable.The Army is a unique organization that values history and tradition, in order to preserve its heritage the Army has many different criteria that individuals must meet or exceed. It is important for military leadership to choose the right individuals to join their ranks because these will be their future leaders; for this reason, staffing is a very important management function. â€Å"Staffing shares the human element with leading. Staffing involves choosing the right people.Leading includes enticing the highest levels of performance from those people† (Reilly, Minnick, and Baack, 2011, sec. 7. 2). Whether it is a time of war or peace, the Army’s recruiting mission is probably one of the h ardest and most demanding jobs. Recruiters are trained to select and train new Soldiers prior to shipping them off to Basic Training. To become a recruiter one must have exceptional leadership capabilities and it means that one must be willing and able to sacrifice a lot of personal and family time.Recruiters are the sales-people of the Army, they must spend time with new recruits, influencing them and teaching them the core values of the organization. It takes a lot of commitment, because new recruits are not obligated to anything until they actually sign their contract the day they ship off Basic Training. At the same time, this gives recruiters the insight they need to determine if an individual belongs in the Army or not. As my previous leaders have often said, â€Å"You chose the Army, it did not choose you†.It takes a certain type of individual to join the service, not everyone is made for the military. Aside from recruiting goals, the Army also has retention goals in o rder to maintain a certain level of strength in the military. Prior deployments to Iraq and Afghanistan, the military’s retention goals and recruitment goals went up in order to satisfy the demand for troops overseas and troops to replace the ones overseas. It shaped and evolved the organization in order to meet these demands; it also required changes in its structure, resources, and planning.Because of the Army’s staffing needs during two simultaneous wars, we saw changes like rescinding the â€Å"Don’t Ask Don’t Tell Policy† and the opening of combat roles for women in the military. â€Å"Controlling has one element in common with staffing. Both are involved in the performance appraisal process for individual employees. Standards link controlling and planning. Further, controlling begins the process of creating the next set of plans† (Reilly, Minnick, and Baack, 2011, sec. 7. 2).The Army takes feedback seriously, for this reason they have implemented many different ways to gather information that will allow the organization to improve in every aspect. The Army does well at rewarding good performance and by doing so it gives Soldiers the inspiration they need to attain such rewards. Performance is evaluated in a matter that it provides its employees the feedback they need to improve in the areas identified and a way to help the Army identify anyone that does not need to be promoted to a leadership position.Another way the Army applies the control function is by using After Action Reviews, in which it collects information following every training exercise in order to make improvements and identify areas to sustain. After action reviews all allow Soldiers to identify areas that their leaders need to improve on, such as conduct or performance during the training exercises; in the civilian world it is usually referred as constructive criticism (Rakow, 2005). By using these evaluative tools, the Army is able to create flex ible leaders that are able to adapt and perform under any given circumstance.The five management functions are very effective and very necessary in the military. The Army and any other military branch are prime examples of how these functions are linked to one another and perfectly explain why one function cannot exist without the others. The success of the Army revolves around their effectiveness in applying these functions into their everyday operations; it allows them to operate smoothly, allocate the proper resources, groom its employees in to leaders, identify areas of improvement, and carefully plan and organize future training events and contingencies.